(Consider; form, context, purpose, audience and la Essays

(Consider; structure, setting, reason, crowd and la Essays (Consider; structure, setting, reason, crowd and language) Look at the situations looked by the flying creatures in every one of the three writings. The setting of every one of the three writings contains components of distress and isolation comparable to the results the winged creatures have, while having their opportunity stripped away and constrained into bondage by people. There is additionally a solid accentuation in every one of the three messages on the possibility that free flying creatures are upbeat fowls, and that caught feathered creatures are sad flying creatures, continually longing for opportunity from the bars and took away freedom that limit them from the mists, wind and daylight that opportunity brings to the table them. How does the writer of text 1 utilize visual and composed components to convince the peruser to think outside the pen'? (two sections) The writer of text one uses numerous visual strategies and composed components, for example, shading, edge, and center, to convince the peruser to think outside the pen'. The shading green is utilized inside the banner, just as yellow and white. Green is utilized to stress the normal natural surroundings', in which flying creatures ought to be and should live their lives. The composition inside the casing is changed in accordance with the end right side, in intense white lettering; this gives the peruser a feeling of limitation, as the lettering looks as though it is needing to get away from the surrounding, urging the peruser to need to think outside the (outline) confine'. The spotlight in the image is on the cockatoo, which is in prepared movement to fly, free in to the air. The entirety of the visual and composed components the writer utilizes convince the peruser to think outside the enclosure'. Look at strategies utilized by the creators of text 2 and 3, to inspire compassion toward the flying creatures that endure. Likenesses can be seen in the two writings two and three, wherein can be analyzed. The two creators use humanoid attribution in their content to summon compassion toward the winged creatures endure. The creator of text two uses the method of humanoid attribution, as the little feathered creature that is referenced, is given feelings of misery and aching for opportunity after its catch by the hotel people. In text three the creator additionally shows the strategy of humanoid attribution for the winged creature referenced in the sonnet The Caged Birds Sings. The winged creature where is referenced in the sonnet is given the feelings of outrage and aching for opportunity from bondage. Albeit the two writings contain similitudes, contrasts can be seen in the two messages and contrasted with each other. In text three the reiteration of the bleak section The cadged flying creature sings accentuates the battle of the confined flying creatures and their yearning for the breeze underneath their wings and the sun radiating down above them. Longing for far off opportunity from their dreadful enclosure, in which they can just glance at the free skies from a far distance. This procedure of redundancy that the writer utilizes causes the peruser to identify with the winged animal, as they can see the bars wherein the fowl sees, and with the reiteration, feel confined from development and opportunity. Despite the fact that in text two, the creator doesn't utilize the procedure of reiteration however rather imagery. The stone figures referenced in The Image Of The Lost Soul are spoken to as heavenly attendants, different rulers and priests, and about all were in perspectives of devout commendation and self-restraint while the lost soul stone figure is said to show up with neither one of the crowns, miter, nor glow, and its face was hard and severe and dejected; it must be an evil presence The stone figures, for example, the holy messenger, are spoken to as faithful creatures in which are related with assistance, security and light, while then again, devils are much of the time spoke to with cataclysm and fiasco. In spite of the fact that the strategy is unique in relation to what is used in text three, the impact on the peruser is equivalent with the impact of text three. The assortment of comparative and various strategies appeared in the two writings, are utilized dexterously so as to make and mix the feelings of the peruser; to bring out compassion toward the flying creatures that endure.

Careers in law are open to all and the legal profession is sufficiently diverse. Discuss.

This article will start by summing up the historical backdrop of the situation of ladies in the public arena, move to look to the difficulties that face ladies and businesses lastly, sum up steps that can be required with an end goal to wipe out such limitations. Ladies have taken on a long conflict against subjection. As late as the twentieth century, in England and Wales, ladies remained legitimately subordinate to men. In different societies, this position stays practically speaking today. In England and Wales, coverture alluded to the privileges of ladies being subsumed by those of her significant other through custom-based marriage. This lawful tenet left ladies without a character and gave her better half control of her, her property and the guardianship of her kids. Conjugal assault was not banned until R v R preceded the House of Lords in 1992. Society saw ladies only as objects of their spouses. It was not satisfactory for ladies to contemplate medication or law or to take part in governmental issues. Liberal goals were subdued by the conviction that ladies were nonsensical, inconsistently unfit to manage such subjects and their place was in the house being a docile spouse and maternal parent. During the war exertion, specifically, l adies demonstrated that they were fit for holding down significant jobs inside the workforce and society all the more by and large, and were viewed as normal and astute in their deduction as their male partners. Ladies were conceded testimonial in 1928 through the Equal Franchise Act and have since separated the hindrances into practically all callings. Notwithstanding, in principle, ladies being able to do everything a man can do, challenges remain that make it hard to propose that people are really equivalent. Both society and the legitimate calling presently bolster ladies leaving on professions inside the business. By 2008-9, 60% of every single new admission to the Roll were ladies and 52% of those called to the Bar around the same time were ladies. The Bar society demonstrated that in 2009, 34% of counselors were ladies. These figures show that ladies presently make up over 33% everything being equal, be that as it may, advodates are typically knowledgeable and regularly from high financial standing, so this figure doesn't completely speak to whether the lawful calling is different for the normal lady. Factual proof likewise demonstrates that ladies despite everything battle to be selected to the most noteworthy situations inside the lawful calling. Hardly any ladies are elevated to Queen’s Counsel and the main lady to sit inside the House of Lords was just delegated to this situation in 2003. Ladies are generally paid lower than men. The Equal Pay Act 1970 has endeavored to settle the divergence between the male and female compensation hole, be that as it may, it isn't unprecedented for an instance of this nature to emerge. As of late, a representative sued her manager, Lewis Silkin, because she was being paid lower than a male partner. Contentions recommend that because of the more enthusiastic, delicate and maternalistic nature of ladies in contrast with men, regularly ladies pick to have practical experience in various territories of law, for example, family or individual injury law as opposed to male commanded specialisms, for example, corporate or banking law. Family and individual injury law are additionally frequently less prominent and don't rely on worthwhile arrangements so the specialisms are regularly not too paid. To excuse a lady for falling pregnant and needing maternity leave is out of line excusal. Pregnancy does, be that as it may, assume a significant job in this discussion. Most businesses would accept that a young lady will enjoy a reprieve to have an infant later on and the way that having a youngster is customarily less troublesome to the work life of a man, it makes the male partner a less expensive and more secure alternative in the long haul. A break in work is viewed as problematic and managers need to fill that position during the maternity leave, successfully making the business pay twice for a similar activity to be finished. In when bosses are confronting extreme monetary occasions, having solid staff that don't need to be swapped for broadened lengths shows up, on face esteem, to be economically feasible alternative. Besides, there is a worry for the business that childcare issues may cause interruption and lost working hours when the representative returns. Lawful experts w ho are independently employed, for example, counselors, can discover the change unquestionably progressively troublesome as far as taking care of their living expenses and holding customers during maternity leave and the pressure of another infant when they later come back to work. In 2004, the Bar Council distributed strategies that spread the issues of maternity, paternity and adaptable working hours trying to adjust family life and legitimate practice. To effectively mirror this point, the approach has expanded the time a barrister’s seat might be open lease free with Chamber’s costs from a quarter of a year to one year. In Heard and another v Sinclair Roche and Temperley (a firm) and others, it was decided that the firm had unlawfully separated on the grounds of family status and joined with unlawful sex segregation, comprised out of line treatment. This case emerged when the firm neglected to advance or progress the person. The firm had an aggregate of 36 accomplices and just 6 were ladies. This case proposed that ladies are additionally more averse to be selected to administrative positions, especially if the ruling force is male. Different contentions recommend that ladies are more passionate than men and workplace issues are progressively present. Webley recommends that ladies battle to advance in the calling for an assortment of reasons including manly office culture, the weight of working extended periods of time and high charging targets and disappointment with commodification’s impact on work quality. Regarding the legitimate calling, legal advisors speak to the lawful situation of their customer and to do as such, must relate well and genuinely comprehend the circumstance of their customer. On the off chance that all legal counselors were men, one could address whether ladies in the public arena would ever be sufficiently spoken to by the lawful calling. There is a contention to state that there is as much a spot for ladies in the calling as men, as ladies take care of issues in an alternate manner, can be increasingly merciful and can adjust an all-male workplace. Parliament has made endeavors to permit more prominent access to the legitimate calling to minority bunches by establishing enactment, for example, the Courts and Legal Services Act 1990. The principle motivation behind this order was to change the legitimate calling after the discoveries of the Benson Commission during the 1970s. To the legal executive, specifically, significant changes were made to arrangements and annuities and critical changes were actualized towards the association and guideline of the lawful calling. The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 later suggested that an autonomous body ought to be made to manage the arrangement of judges, which came after analysis from the Law Society with respect to the old framework. Such authoritative and cultural help towards the openness and decent variety of the lawful calling ought to ingrain a cheerfulness into influenced ladies that the calling is moving the correct way. There have been a few endeavors by the calling itself to advance and empower openness and decent variety. The PRIME activity saw 23 UK and Irish law offices meet up to shape an earth shattering activity to expand social versatility through a wide going work experience conspire. While this activity concentrated more on financial status as opposed to sexual orientation, the outcomes propose that genuine open doors inside the lawful calling have been offered to the individuals who are in any case far-fetched to have been given the chance. Taking everything into account, the lawful calling isn't yet adequately various. Both verifiable and contemporary measurements demonstrate a predisposition towards men because of the maternalistic idea of ladies. Insights exhibit a pattern that the calling is moving the correct way as far as balance, decent variety and openness for ladies, in any case, the fight for really equivalent treatment, rights and pay for the two sexes is a progressing issue inside the lawful calling, all things considered in the public eye by and large. Generally, ladies were ceased from having a personality and rehearsing inside the legitimate calling since they were viewed as nonsensical and unfit. While that observation has plainly vanished, which is a positive move, ladies despite everything face difficulties because of the physiological contrasts among people. These distinctions will never show signs of change and except if there is a move in the mindset of employers’, these are probably going to be difficulties that stay for the span. One could contend that the fight among fairness and decent variety inside the legitimate calling and business practicality for entrepreneurs will never really resolve. Reference index Deborah, L. ‘Title of the article’ [2001] Women and the Legal Profession 156 Fredman, S. ‘Discrimination Law’ (New York, United States: Oxford University Press Inc, 2001) Leighton, P. ‘Discrimination and the Law’ (Camp Road, London: Short Run Press, 2004) Macdonald, L. ‘Equality, Diversity and Discrimination’ (Camp Road, London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development, 2004) McColgan, A. ‘Discrimination Law’ (North, America: Hart Publishing Co, second edn., 2005). Insect Anleu, S. ‘Law and Social Change’ (City Road, London: Sage Publication Limited, 2000) Sargeant, M. ‘Discrimination Law’ (Essex, England: Pearson Education Limited, 2004) Sommerland, H., Webley, D., Duff, L., Muzio, D., Tomlinson, J. ‘Diversity in the Legal Profession in England and Wales: A Qualitative Study of Barriers and Individual Choices’ Suddards, H. ‘Sex and Race Discrimination’ (Camp Road, London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development, second edn., 2002) Webley, L., Duff, L. ‘Women Solicitors as a Barometer for Problems inside the Legal Profession: Time to Pu

Blog Archive Beyond the MBA Classroom 100 Case Party at Darden

Blog Archive Beyond the MBA Classroom 100 Case Party at Darden When you select an MBA program, you are not just choosing your learning environment but are also committing to becoming part of a community. Each Thursday, we offer a window into life “beyond the MBA classroom” at a top business school. The celebration of the first-year class’s completion of its first 100 cases at the University of Virginia’s Darden School of Business Administration, appropriately called the 100-Case Party, typically takes place in mid-October. Over the two years they spend at Darden, students will study approximately 500â€"600 cases. The 100-Case Party is typically held off campus at a Charlottesville club. Said one alumnus we interviewed, it is “a huge party; people go wild,” while another told us that the party is significant because “it celebrates a huge milestone.” In October 2011, a first year wrote about the party in her blog about MBA life at Darden, saying, “I’m not sure if the plan is to drink 100 cases, but anything is fair game!” For in-depth descriptions of social and community activities at UVA Darden and 15 other top MBA programs, check out the mbaMission Insider’s Guides. Share ThisTweet Beyond the MBA Classroom University of Virginia (Darden) Blog Archive Beyond the MBA Classroom 100 Case Party at Darden When you select an MBA program, you are not just choosing your learning environment, but are also committing to becoming part of a community. Each Thursday, we offer a window into life “beyond the MBA classroom” at a top business school. The celebration of the first-year class’s completion of its first 100 cases at the University of Virginias Darden School of Business Administration, appropriately called the 100-Case Party, typically takes place in mid-October. Over the two years they spend at Darden, students will study approximately 600 cases, so this party recognizes the first sixth of that. The 100-Case Party is typically held off campus at a Charlottesville club. Said one alumnus we interviewed, it is “a huge party; people go wild,” while another told us that the party is significant because “it celebrates a huge milestone.” In October 2011, a first year wrote about the party in her blog about MBA life at Darden, saying, “I’m not sure if the plan is to drink 100 cases, but anything is fair game!” For in-depth descriptions of social and community activities at UVA Darden and 15 other top MBA programs, check out the mbaMission Insider’s Guides. Share ThisTweet Beyond the MBA Classroom University of Virginia (Darden)

Lowering the Drinking Age from 21 Would be Irresponsible...

Lowering the drinking age from 21 would be irresponsible. People argue that lowering the drinking age is not smart because most youths still have not yet reached a mature age to handle alcohol. Teens that include themselves in an unsafe environment are likely to endure in self-harm and encounter in binge drinking. The Alcohol Policy Information System says, â€Å"Annually, about 5,000 youth under the age of 21 die in incidents due to underage drinking† (â€Å"Drinking†). I believe the drinking age should not be lowered because of the major hazards that could occur, an increase in traffic accidents, and the age maturity to handle alcohol responsibly. Many risks and hazards can be caused from the use of alcohol. Binge drinking is extremely†¦show more content†¦al). Drinking is dangerous as it is, but underage drinking just upsurges the risk of wrecks, the health problems, and dependence on alcohol through adulthood (â€Å"Underage†). Age maturity is a big when dealing with alcohol. It’s obvious that teenagers under 21 are not yet mature, and are still trying to figure out their life. Even at the age of 18 they are entering a new phase with work, college, and a stage of independence. Nowadays parents allow their teens to consume alcohol as long as it is at their home, so they are sure they have a place to stay and can be in control. Some parents introduce alcohol to their teen in a responsible way to teach them and ensure they are safe when they become independent. In this case, teens think drinking is okay. Handling alcohol irresponsibly like this increases the teens killing themselves due to high alcohol content. Research states that if a child under 18 is drinking, they are also getting drunk. They report that 65 % of teens who drink monthly show that they are getting drunk at least once a month (â€Å"Underage†). Anything lowered from Minimum Legal Drinking Age (MLDA) 21 would be medically irresponsible. The early adult brain can be easily affected and when alcohol interferes it can cause addiction, memory loss, and violence (â€Å"Underage†). Teenagers are not responsible enough for MLDA to be lowered. There are many risks to what could happen if the drinking ageShow MoreRelatedThe Legal Drinking Age Should Be Lowered Essay1548 Words   |  7 PagesIn the United States, the legal drinking age is twenty-one. In all fifty states, however, there are exceptions for underaged drinking at home, under adult supervision, or for medical purposes (â€Å"Drinking Age†). Overall, the legal opportunities for any person under twenty-one to legally drink alcohol are very scarce. There are many different points, made by people from both sides of the issue about whether or not to lower the drinking age to eighteen, or leave it where it currently stands at twenty-oneRead MoreShould The Drinking Age Be Lowered?995 Words   |  4 Pageslegal drinking age be lowered to age 18? Recently people have been debating whether If the drinking age should be lowered to 18. Some people think 18 is a better age but others think it’s outr ageous to lower the drinking age to 18. After much reading and observing, I myself think the drinking age should be kept at 21 years old,because young adults who drink while they re underage make poor decisions and majority of the young adults are in college lacking in classes. The legal drinking age shouldRead MoreShould The Drinking Age Be Lowered?875 Words   |  4 Pages Should the Drinking Age Be Lowered? Should the legal drinking age be lowered to age 18? Recently people have been debating whether If the drinking age should be lowered to 18. Some people think 18 is a better age but others think it’s outrageous to lower the drinking age to 18. After much reading and observing, I myself think the drinking age should be kept at 21 years old,because young adults who drink while they re underage make poor decisions and majority of the young adults are in collegeRead MoreChallenging The Legal Drinking Age1689 Words   |  7 PagesMackenzie Schultz Mrs. Hamilton AP English Language 25 July 2014 Challenging the Legal Drinking Age The Minimum Legal Drinking Age (MLDA) has been challenged since the passing of the National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984 that raised the drinking age to twenty-one in all fifty states (Ogilvie). Advocates for lowering the MLDA to eighteen years of age argue that this change will eliminate the thrill of breaking the law for young adults entering college and boost the national economy. SupportersRead MoreMandatory Legal Drinking Age Should Be Banned982 Words   |  4 Pagesused to be set at 21. In the late 60s states began to lower their MLDA, although this resulted in many deaths alcohol related. 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Mass Medias Effects on Sterotyping - 992 Words

Since racial stereotyping in the media serves to justify, emphasize, and perpetuate antagonistic and munificent racism, there is need for focused study efforts on practical strategies to challenge and ultimately eradicate stereotypes. Stereotypes are generated and altered on the basis of first-hand encounters with stigmatized groups, as well as recycled information from mass media, acquaintances, as well as family. While both express and circumlocutory sources of stereotype lessening are acknowledged, the mass of the research on inter-group relationships has concentrated on direct examination of stereotyping conduct in an interpersonal background (Tator Frances, 2006). On the other hand, taking into consideration that people generate†¦show more content†¦It may be factual that the African immigrant may have misinterpreted the police order, or possibly he intended to confirm his identification by showing his identification papers. In a split-second, the police opened fire, a nd only after the shooting was it evident that Diallo had reached for his wallet. The defense argued that at the instance of the split-second decision, the police officers assumed their lives were at risk, and that they consequently did not hold the conscious objective to commit a crime. Although the court failed to take into consideration the mechanisms that may inform such a position, it is appropriate to reflect on the premise that racism is increasingly woven into identity formation in the contemporary media. Moreover, that race as a constructed social grouping derives its influence partly from the social psychological understanding of social categorization, and also from the influential underrated legitimacy that race categories have obtained in their formulation. This is exemplified by the earlier position in this paper that, a media report concerning a criminal suspect of African American descent may automatically trigger stereotypes of aggression (Govorun Payne, 2006). The death of Diallo brought into the limelight a number of alarming issues that run in implicit social cognition studies. It is in this context that the question arises as to whether media stereotypesShow MoreRelatedEffects Of Mass Media And Gender889 Words   |  4 PagesSocialization In today’s society, we see the effects of mass media and media imaging more than we have in any era before. Whether it be the large amount of new social media apps, the access to growing technology and communication throughout the world, or simply the millions of viewers and users, social media has become one, if not the most influential source in the world. This gives mass media the power to create, destroy, and spread any image or idea having a large effect on the audience that sees it. AndRead MoreContent Analysis - Stereotypes in Music3345 Words   |  14 Pagesï » ¿INTRODUCTION TO REPORT We are a group of 4 Second Year students pursuing a Diploma in Mass Communication. For our Communication Issues Group Project, we have decided to investigate the effects of Rhythm Blues (RB)/ Hip Hop music on our present day Society. RB/Hip Hop is one of the more popular genres of music that our Youth listen to and with dedicated television channels such as Music Television (MTV) and Channel V telecasting music videos most of the time that they are in transmission

My Family s Foundation Roll Your Own Paper 1st Draft

Bianca Hall Roll Your Own Paper 1st Draft History 10400-05 Professor Dan Buche Due: November 6, 2014 General Winfield Scott: Success, Free Soil, and an Indication of War My family’s foundation has always been rooted in knowing about our ancestry. From a very young age my mother always told me stories about my grandparents, great grandparents, and so on. About one year ago, at a family reunion, booklets were given to all of the patriarchs of the family; and inside held an abundance of information regarding our ancestry. It was a visual manifesto of exactly where we came from as a family. Naturally, I wanted to know how far into the past my own lineage could be tracked, and the man that stood out the most was that of my great great grandfather, General Winfield Scott. Now, it didn’t surprise me that such a hard working individual existed within the realms of my ancestry it was just that if I were to label my family culturally, the majority would be seen as African American. Yet, Scott is a Caucasian American male, so that was what truly surprised me in addition to his extensive resume. General Winfield Scott was a successful United States Army general who holds the record for serving this country as the longest active general in history. His career spans over 53 years of service within the military, and he held a reputation for being rather stern with his troops. Earning the nicknames of â€Å"Old Fuss and Feathers† and â€Å"The Grand Old Man of the Army.† InterestinglyShow MoreRelatedInternship Report on Citi Bank11361 Words   |  46 PagesBBA(Hons.) 6th semester Roll no: BBS-06 Department Of Business Administration Bahauddin Zakariya University Multan Sub Campus Sahiwal PREFACE Banking sector owes a pivotal importance in the economy of any country through its vibrant functions. 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To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458, or you may fax your request to 201-236-3290. Many of the designations by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations

The Ideal Female Body free essay sample

The topic of the â€Å"ideal† female body is really important to me because not only does it affect me and could potentially affect me as a model, it affects all women, and has been affecting women for thousands of years. Opinions on what the female body should look like have existed since men and women were first created thousands of years ago. People’s opinions on the â€Å"perfect† female body have evolved and changed more in the last few hundred years than in the thousands of years humanity has existed. Lesley Hornby, or more commonly known as Twiggy, was the first underweight woman to be a representation of the â€Å"ideal† female body (Meredith). Although the â€Å"ideal† female body size has gradually become skinnier, especially over the past thousand years, Twiggy’s famous era was the first time in history where the â€Å"ideal† female body size was/was near the Body Mass Index physical criteria for anorexia (Abraham). We will write a custom essay sample on The Ideal Female Body or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Today, the average fashion model is 5’ 10† and weighs 110 pounds (Hesse-Biber). According to â€Å"The 50 Best Female Bodies in Sports†, â€Å"the ideal body is both sexy and muscular, and appealing and chiseled† (Rapp). It’s also commonly known that the â€Å"hourglass† shape is the â€Å"perfect† female body type, which requires a 36† bust, a 26† waist, and 36† hips. Obviously, everyone’s idea of the â€Å"perfect† female body is definitely not the same. To be a fashion model today, however, as mentioned earlier, you must be a certain height and figure for the area you model for. (For example, most runway models are at least 5’ 8† or 9† and have very strict weight equirements. ) Despite the requirements, many women today no longer feel that they can identify with or relate to models, when twenty years ago, the average fashion model weighed 8% less than the average woman. Today, she weighs 23% less (Abraham). Some women even feel that many retailers today are catering to small er sized women and not to women that are larger sizes, when 50% of women are size 14 or larger, but most clothing stores sell clothes that are size 14 or smaller (Abraham). PLUS Model Magazine’s editor-in-chief, Madeline Figueroa-Jones said that â€Å"the fashion and beauty industry continues to endorse a skinny ideal that is not always healthy and alienates a huge percentage of the market. We are bombarded with weight-loss ads [advertisements] every single day, multiple times a day because it’s a multi-billion dollar industry that preys on the fear of being fat. Small sized women cannot be marketed to with pictures of plus-sized women. Why are we [plus-sized women] expected to respond to pictures of small sized women? (Abraham) While some people have praised Madeline’s statements, others believe that positively endorsing a larger sized figure is as dangerous as endorsing a skinny one (Abraham). One person on the magazine’s website commented â€Å"I don’t think the fashion world should support obesity, just as I don’t think it should support anorexia. † (Abraham) As a response, Vogue magazine, one of the world’s most popular fashion magazines, agreed to â€Å"not knowingly work with models under the age of 16 or who appear to have an eating disorder†. Vogue also said that they will be asking casting directors to check IDs at fashion shows and photo shoots (Critchell). â€Å"The move is an important one for the fashion world,† said Sara Ziff, a former model and the founder of The Model Alliance, which is dedicated to improving the working conditions of models and persuading the industry to take better care of their younger models. She also said, Most editors of Vogue regularly hire models who are minors, so for Vogue to commit to no longer using models under the age of 16 marks an evolution in the industry. We hope other magazines and fashion brands will follow Vogues impressive lead. (Critchell) After conducting all this research, I’ve definitely learned a lot about not only the â€Å"ideal† female body, but modeling and the modeling industry as well. I’ve specifically learned a lot about the history of the â€Å"perfect† female body. The research I’ve done has definitely convinced me not to be so concerned with my height and weight. At the end of the day, I’d much rather just be healthy and happy to eat what I want, â€Å"perfect† or not.

corporate and business law Essay Example

corporate and business law Paper corporate and business law BY etu20110952 GASPARD vjrgile LAFITTE Pierre AC504E External auditing Take home case Pacific Sunwear of California Inc Executive summary † 3 The Sarbanes Oxley act: a compliance plan 4 Overview: 4 Summary of the Sarbanes-Oxley 4 The Sarbanes-Oxley act: † 404: Checklist: 5 Auditing standards n05: description of the procedures to comply with the section 5 International standards of auditing in reference with the 6 Processes to comply with the Section case How to comply with the 7 Procedures section 404? mplemented by Pacific Sunwear.. 8 Evaluation of the effectiveness of the process implemented by 9 Impact of the information disclosed on the stock PacSun † 10 Costs and benefits of Sarbanes- Oxley † 13 Recommendations for 15 References. 16 Appendix A : Deadline for the compliance with the different sections of internal the act.. † . 17 Appendix B: Certification required by the SEC about . 9 Appendix C: Certification required by 2 0 the SEC about disclosure controls Executive summary Pacific Sunwear of California entered in the stock market on Nasdaq in 1993. The Sarbanes Oxley act redacted in 2002, established new or enhanced standards for listing companies in the US markets and in particular the section 404 about the creation of an internal report each year, in response to a number of major corporate In this report, we will establish the impact of this United States federal law on PacSun by analyzing the process engendered, influence of the disclosures on the stock price, and the cost/benefits relation. The Sarbanes Oxley act: a compliance plan The Sarbanes-Oxley act enacted in 2002 is a United States federal law to respond to some major corporate and accounting scandals such as Enron, Tyco international or World com. These scandals cost billions of dollars to investors when stock prices collapsed and decreased the public confidence about nations securities markets and auditing standards. So, this standard established new or improved standards and regulations, for all US public company and all foreign companies listed in the US stock markets. This act contains 11 sections and required the Securities and Exchange Commission (US regulator which regulates the securities industry and the stocks and options markets) to implement the rules and comply with the new law. The deadlines to implement SOX are exposed in Appendix 1 . Summary of the Sarbanes-Oxley act: Then, we are going to describe quickly the different sections of the SOX act (except the section 4 explained below): 1 Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB): the objective of this board is to register and regulate all public accounting firms to implement compliance standards 2 Auditor independence: creation of standards for external auditor ndependence to reduce conflicts of interest 3 Corporate responsibility: defines the relation between external auditors and corporate audit committees 5 Analyst conflicts of interest: evokes practice to create a new public confidence in the reporting 6 Commission resources and authority: highlights practice to create a new public confidence in the financial analysts 7 Studies and reports: SEC has to make various studies and explain their findings 8 Corporate and criminal fraud accountability: describes criminal penalties for fraud 9 White collar crime penalty enhancements 0 Corporate tax returns requir ed to be signed by the Chief Executive Officer 1 1 Corporate fraud accountability: identified corporate fraud and records classified as criminal offenses The Sarbanes-Oxley 404: Checklist: The section 4 is about enhanced financial disclosures and increases requirements for financial reporting like off-balance sheet transactions. It requires internal controls to offer the accuracy of financial reports and disclosures. An internal control system is failures, or weaknesses in the system that must occur. The section 404 is the cornerstone of the section 4 and demands that each annual eport contain an internal control report. We will write a custom essay sample on corporate and business law specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on corporate and business law specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on corporate and business law specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer This additional report assesses the responsibility of management for establishing and implementing adequate procedures for financial reporting. This report must include: assessment of effectiveness of internal control structure and procedures, any code of ethics and contents of that code. Consequently, this section is really decisive because it implies extra costs to comply with this requirement for registered public companies in the US stock markets. The Appendix 2 and 3 sum up the certifications required by the SEC. Auditing standards 05: description of the procedures to comply with the section 404 Issued the 24th may 2007, the Auditing standards n05 substitutes the Auditing standards n02. The Public Company Accounting Oversight Board releases the AS n05 to describe the procedures to comply with the section 404: o Highlights a top-down risk based approach (financial risk assessment) o Places greater reliance on entity-level controls o Focuses on understanding and testing controls related to risks for significant accounts and disclosures o Allows for greater ability to rely on work of others o Changes definition of material weakness and significant deficiency: Material weakness: a deficiency, or combination of deficiencies, in internal control over financial reporting, such that there is a reasonable possibility that a material misstatement of the companys annual or interim financial statements will not be prevented or detected on a timely basis. Significant deficiency: A deficiency or combination of deficiencies, in internal control over financial reporting that is less severe than a material weakness, yet important to merit the attention by those responsible for ove rsight of the companys financial reporting. o Simplifies the auditors opinion by eliminating opinion on managements ssessment of internal control 5 International standards of auditing in reference with the case The section 404 referred to some ISA standards: ISA 230 about audit documentation ISA 300 about planning an audit of financial statements ISA 330 about the auditors procedures in response to assessed risks ISA 500 about audit evidence ISA 600 about using the Work of Another Auditor 6 Processes to comply with the Section 404 After evoking the requirements of the section 404, we will describe the processes implemented by Pacific Sunwear first and by the other listed companies in general. Complying with Sarbanes-Oxley is complex; compliance requires a multiple approach involving many departments and many people which will be detailed below. How to comply with the Section 404? Generally, according to Sanjay Anand an internal control in accordance with Sarbanes-Oxley is following an eight-step process: 1 Establish a compliance committee which is specialist of the compliance with Sarbanesoxley and can have a general overview of the company about the risk and the solutions. The objective of this committee is to commit the various departments, to provide training and to communication about the objectives. Assess risk in order to identify the magnitude and potential impact of each risk in order to create a risk portfolio. 3 Set reporting objectives by determining the probability of risks and errors to define decision rules and reporting objectives. For ensuring internal control compliance, these areas need to be created: personnel control, system and resource controls, strategic planning controls and business service controls. 4 Prepare a formal implementation plan, which is a transition plan to move from project step to a day-to-day operation for an internal control system. Communicate the ongoing procedures by presenting clearly and effectively with the focusing on understanding, acceptance and observance. 6 Provide training implemented by the compliance committee in internal policies, practices and procedures. 7 Document processes and risk management certified by the Chief Executing Officer and the Chief Financial Officer so as to demonstrate the efficiency of the internal control system. Perform continuous evaluation performed by the manager in order to establish and maintain controls and to ensure the appropriate compliance. 7 Procedures implemented by Pacific Sunwear The most expensive costs of compliance were those linke d with the section 404: costs about internal controls over financial reporting. The procedures of compliance are only described for the two first years in the case study: 2004 and 2005. Before the compliance, PacSun had not internal control system. They only created it in mid 2003 and they paid the services of a Big-4 auditing firms as required by the section 404. They expanded the internal control department at the end of 2004. About the procedures they implemented in 2004, PacSun followed a process in five steps: 1) Scope and plan the evaluation 2) Document the controls nd correct deficiencies 5) Reports on internal control They identified also 21 major business processes assigned to an owner with the objective to develop detailed process narratives. These major business processes were divided into sub processes with the detail of the business objectives and the risks. At the end of 2004, they had identified a total of 238 key controls and they managed to highlight a significant deficiency about the revaluation of deferred leases which can affect by definition the reliability of external auditing data. Then, all public officers had to certify in their area that the control was effective. The CEO and CFO certified then of the fairness and reliability of the financial statements. In 2005, the process became easier because all the information had already been created. They reduced the number of key controls to 222, only a 7% decrease, in comparison with larger companies (19% of decrease). They discovered a new significant deficiency because they didnt recognize liabilities about the companys loyalty program. 8 Evaluation of the effectiveness of the process implemented by PacSun Strengths: Enables to discover two significant deficiencies which misstate the financial statements Enable to create an efficient internal control system, which reduces the risks and increases the efficiency of the global system Implementation of a double control : internal control and Big-4 auditing firms control Better assessment of risks implied Significant reduction of the costs after the first year of implementation of about 40%, comparable to the other companies Commitment of all the employees which can increase the motivation and the corporate culture Better disclosure of financial information for financial analysts and investors Weaknesses: Compliance costs of $2 million in 2004 and $1. million in 2005 Additional costs associated with the training of the staff with the necessary creation of a SOX program training The compliance is very time-consuming with an increase of the formalization Competitive disadvantage in comparison with the other competitors not listed Overall, PacSun had efficiently implemented the compliance and the weaknesses will tend to reduce over the long term. However, PacSun management believed that the costs are greater than the benefits engendered. The costs implied and generally the time spent to respect the compliance rules, can Justify this opinion. Impact of the information disclosed on the stock prices In 2005, PacSun need to restate his prior two years financial statements, which resulted in no material change to net income. Auditors Judge restatement like deficiencies but they dont agree about the type of deficiency: two of the Big-4 firms judge this particular type of restatement as only a significant deficiency, i. e. a control deficiency, or combination of control deficiencies, that adversely affects the companys ability to be in accordance with GAAP. The others two Judge it to be a material weakness, i. e. significant deficiency, or combination of significant deficiencies, that result in more than remote likelihood that a material misstatement of financial statements will not be prevented or detected. by the PacSun loyalty program called Pac Bucks. In fact, the liabilities and expenses of this program were not recognizing in the proper quarter. This accounting problem was considered by external auditors like a significant deficiency, but not a material weakness. Thus, in FY 2005, PacSun received clean financial statement and 404 opinions. What is the impact of Information Disclosure provided by these deficiencies n PacSuns stock price? In this graph, we can see that the PacSuns stock price is very volatile between 2005 to 2007 (Beta higher than 1) when the NASDAQ is regularly up. This volatility can be explained by 10 the convergence of PacSun to SOX and the substantial increase of information provided on the firm. But it is very hard to have a real opinion of the impact of Information Disclosure on stock Market Returns with a unique firm. Thus we will answer with papers which study this impact on a large sample of US Company. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 is one of the , if not the, most important pieces of egislation affecting corporations traded on the US stock exchanges, since the Securities Act of 1932 and Securities Exchange Act of A934 were enacted (Gordon et al. 2007). The SOX act introduced significant changes to financial practice and corporate governance regulation, including new rules designed to protect investors by improving the accuracy and reliability of corporate disclosures made pursuant to the securities laws. And the part of the Act having the most impact must be Section 404, which requires management to submit to the SEC with the companys annually filed financial statements, an internal control report, an assessment of the ffectiveness of the internal control structure and procedures for financial reporting, and finally an audit report which include a description of material weakness in such internal controls and of any material noncompliance. Furthermore, where significant deficiencies exist, they need to be identified as required under SOX like we saw in the PacSun case. Many studies demonstrate that the passage of mandatory government regulation like SOX may be altering the operation of capital market by affecting the stock performance of firms. In 2007, Balakrishnan et Al. , examine, by a dataset on stock arket abnormal returns and consists of 300 firms, how the stock market reaction varies for 8-K filling and how this reaction have changed since the passage of the SOX act. The result is that the SOX have the particularity to increase the information flow of a firm. Thus when a disclosure of a deficiency is promulgated, the information is quickly announced by media and have a direct negative impact on the stock market price. Inversely, when a firm received clean financial statement and 404 opinions, we can think that stock price is positively impacted because its an evidence of a very ood internal control of the firm. Another interesting dimension to consider would be the size of the firm. The effect of Sarbanes-Oxley on the firms information environment is expected to vary with the size of the firm (Ghose et al. 2006). In fact, international firm, but in the US sportswear market, this size is important. In a stock market where diversification is one of the solutions to leverage the risk, PacSun can be a blue chip. Thus, a special attention is paid to it by media. 1 Finally, we can say that disclosure of these deficiencies have had a negative effect on irms stock price but, on the contrary, clean financial statement certification and Good 404 opinion have a positive impact on stock price. In addition, a firm can decide to increase the speed with which information reaches investors by publicizing it in me dia articles. Its a good way to build a loyal firms brand image i. e. increase the investor recognition and limited the impact of bad news on the stock price. 12 Costs and benefits of Sarbanes-Oxley PacSun executives seem convinced that the costs of complying with SOX were greater than the benefits to the company. Though, according to a survey entitled Oversight Systems financials Executive Report conducted with 222 corporate finance leaders, 74 percent said their company benefited from SOX, 79 percent reported significantly stronger or somewhat stronger internal controls as a result of SOX, 46 percent said SOX compliance benefits the company by ensuring accountability and 75 percent said they would vote to keep Section 404 if they were members of Congress. In fact, the benefits of SOX Compliance are multiple: There is a positive influence on maintaining investor confidence (and long-term share price) through increased ransparency and fewer surprises. Financial reporting is more timely and reliable. Overall control culture and corporate governance process are improved. Outdated, redundant and inflective processes and controls are eliminated. Employee on- boarding process is easier Then, why did PacSun not benefit from the compliance process to the same extent as some other companies? Or were their compliance costs too high? The main issue of PacSun is this medium size ($1 billon in market capitalization). The high cost of SOX implementation is financially draining many firms. The SOX doesnt ake a distinction between large-cap billion-dollar companies and small-cap; $75- millon companies (the minimum cap to be obliged to apply SOX). Therefore, the Act requires all public companies to comply with the same regulations; it doesnt take into consideration that small companies arent as complex in organizational structure as large companies. Because large corporations have complex business models, more complicated accounting practices, they already have a lot of controls in place to ensure the efficiency of their operations that are required by SOX. In other hand, maller companies have simpler organizational structures and, thus, have slighter accounting practices, which generate simpler financial statements. These small firms require less internal controls. Therefore, since small companies have simpler subject to the same internal control and external auditing requirement of large companies. In the case of PacSun, this business model and accounting practice are closer from a small firm as shown this number of key controls (222 versus an average of 540 for the large companies). In addition, the SOX were created to fight against corporate scandals like Enron. But the majority of these scandals have occurred in large corporations with thousand of shareholders by the intermediary of retirement/pension fund. PacSun doesnt have the same type of shareholders and doesnt require the same level of protection for the shareholder interests. Therefore, although shareholder interests should be protected, SOX regulations arent needed for smaller firms that have simple business structures and a small number of shareholders that are unlikely to fraud themselves (entrepreneurs who start the company, their families, and public shareholders without any link between them). Implanting SOX is a long and costly process for companies. In the case of PacSun where his market is not occupied by large companies but especially by little firms (under the $75-million cap) which dont apply SOX, this implantation creates for PacSun a competitive disadvantage and stumps their growth by requiring them to spend excessive amounts of money and time to implement regulation. As example of costs, we have the cost of training, the implementation of a strong internal control, an increase of the size of finance/accounting departments, the fees of the audit firms ; he required amount of money is disproportionately larger in comparison with the largest firms. Thus in conclusion, we can say that SOX were designed in priority for large and complex companies. These costs are too high in relation with the engendered benefits for small caps. 4 Recommendations for PacSun Continue the work to reduce the number of key controls and try to improve a large part of them (better define it and really find an utility) Check the conformity between all marketing projects and internal control before a launching Optimize the balance between internal and external auditors to reduce the work of he external auditors Change your mind: SOX is an advantage to improve internal control Create a training and development program with an e learning module for example References Anand, S. (2006), Sarbanes-Oxley guide for finance and information technology professionals, John Wiley and Sons, 2nd edition Balakrishnan, K. , Ghose, A. and Ipeirotis, P. 2007), the Impact of Information Disclosure on Stock Market Returns: The Sarbanes- Oxley Act and the Role of Media as an Information Intermediary, University of Cambridge Bowling, D. Julien, R. and Rieger, L. (2003), Implementation of Sarbanes-Oxley S 404: Ensuring Compliance, Leveraging Opportunities Ghose, A. and RaJan. U. (2006) The Economic Impact of Regulatory Information Disclosure on Information Security Investments, Competition, and Social Welfare Proceedings of the Workshop on Economics of Information Security, University of Cambridge Gordon, L. , Loeb, M. , Lucyshyn, W. and Sohail, T. (2006), The Impact of the Sarbanesoxley Act on the Corporate Disclosures of Information Security Activities. Journal of Accounting and Public Policy, 25(5) pp. 503-530. Grinberg, E. 2007), The impact of Sarbanes Oxley Act 2002 on Small Firms, Pace University Ramos, M. (2004), How to comply with Sarbanes-Owley Section 404. Assessing the Effectiveness of Internal Control, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Available on: http:// books. google. fr/books? id=GAMR23qTQUC=process+to+comply+with+section +404=frontcover=bl= LaTJJAf1 e 1 16 Appendix A : Deadline for the compliance with the different sections of the actl professionals, John Wiley and Sons, 2nd edition, page 63/64 17 18 Appendix B: Certification required by the SEC about internal controls2 professionals, John Wiley and Sons, 2nd edition, page 68

I wish I were…

I wish I were†¦ I wish I were I wish I were By Maeve Maddox A reader wonders whether to use was or were in the following examples: I wish I wereorI wish I was If only it wasor If only it were What is the rule?   With these examples, the choice is obvous because the words wish and if only make it clear that the speaker is talking about something that is not so. In such a case the subjunctive is called for: I wish I were If only it were Sometimes the choice whether to use the subjunctive or the indicative is not so clear. To a large extent, English speakers dont pay much attention to the subjunctive. As long ago as 1926 H.W. Fowler called the subjunctive in English moribund. He went further and suggested that it never was possible to draw up a consistent table of uses of the subjunctive in English that would correspond to such tables for Latin. Although the subjunctive is not a big deal in English, some uses of it are still alive and not difficult to master. Depending on context, the choice between indicative and subjunctive can be as obvious as the examples with wish and if only. If I were/if he were/if she were These forms are called for when the statement refers to a state outside reality: If he were Governor he could pardon you. (Hes not the Governor.) If I were you, Id fix that leaky roof. (Im not you.) If she were an animal, shed be an armadillo. (Shes not an animal.) If I was/if he was/if she was These forms are called for when the statement refers to a state of being that existed, or could have existed in actual time: If he was ill, no wonder he left the oysters untouched. If I was unkind to you in those days, please forgive me. If she was lost in the woods, no one can blame her for being late. Sometimes the speaker must decide according to intended meaning: If she were sensible, shed order a background check on him. (I know her and shes not sensible.) If she was sensible, shed order a background check on him. (I dont know if shes sensible or not. She may be.) In his DCBLOG, David Crystal gives this example overheard in conversation: A If Jane was right for the part, Id cast her. B But thats the point. Is she right? A Well if she were, Id cast her, thats all Im saying This example shows an intermingling of indicative and subjunctive to achieve nuances of meaning. Stated rule at OWL DWT article on Mood Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Grammar category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:75 Synonyms for â€Å"Angry†Five Spelling Rules for "Silent Final E"A Yes-and-No Answer About Hyphenating Phrases

Health Promotion Teaching Plan Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Health Promotion Teaching Plan - Research Paper Example et al., 2000). This paper seeks to develop, perform, and evaluate a teaching plan centered on overall health and wellness through diet, exercise and stress reduction strategies for women, between the ages of 30-50, utilizing various different teaching strategies and techniques in a group setting. Assessment of Learning Needs ?The learning group, which consisted of five members, was taught as a one group due to their small number. The very first pretest was based on â€Å"Fact versus Fiction, What are the myths about overall health and wellness through diet, exercise and stress reduction strategies?† was completed by all the members in order to assess their knowledge before the commencement of the seminar. There was a median score was 49% which showed that the awareness of the study group was adequately lacking. The level of development of the group members showed 50% of the group at a high school diploma level, 25% at a Bachelor’s Degree level, and 25% at an Associateâ €™s Degree level. Even though the majority of the participants had corrective vision, one particular member stated challenges in hearing. Gender, religion and race were diversity in the group, two younger members tended to have a more holistic viewpoint seeking alternatives to taking stress strategies. The others showed preference to a more medicinal interventions (Loyd, Lake, & Greenberg, 2004). The learning styles and strategies The strategies and styles of learning that was preferred by the group include: question and answer, explanation and demonstration, and group discussion. Learner Objectives ? The learning objectives for the health promotion teaching plan include:? Affective Domain: the group members are willing to listen actively to presentation given by their instructor on overall health and wellness through diet, exercise and stress reduction strategies as they engage in a group project; Cognitive Domain: every group member will be able to state five facts on overall health and wellness through diet, exercise and stress reduction strategies following the completion of the seminar; Psychomotor Domain: By the end of training, group members will be able to appropriately measure their own stress levels and document the possible stress strategies preferred. Teaching Plan The teaching instructor needs to exhibit flexibility always with respect to, not only the teaching plan in an effort to meet the individual needs of the learner, but also to the learning objectives. Teaching Plan The teaching plan that will be implemented will include the following aspects: Written Pretest â€Å"Fact versus Fiction, What are the myths about overall health and wellness through diet, exercise and stress reduction strategies?† guidelines on healthy lifestyle guidelines for all the participants relayed through explanation and answering questions, such as eat a healthy balanced diet rich in fruits and vegetables, whole grains and high fiber foods; eat fish at least twice per week; limit sodium intake; and drink no more than one alcoholic drink per day, and getting about 200 minutes of moderate intensity exercise per week. Evaluation of Teaching and Learning A critical evaluation of all the contents in the last phase of the health promotion teaching plan will be carried out. The teaching plan was precise, clear, and focused on the members in the targeted age group. All the registered nurse, who adheres to the format of the teaching plan, would have the

What aspects should be considered in the estimate of nursing Essay

What aspects should be considered in the estimate of nursing - Essay Example Set up two nursing diagnoses: a current and a risk.The nursing diagnoses for the patient are improper eating habits and inheritance of genes from their parentsSet for each nursing diagnosis an expected outcome (goal).An expected outcome resulting from poor eating habits may result to the patient gaining unnecessary weight. In order to avoid this, the patient should realize the need to have proper balanced diet at all times. It will also increase their level of awareness of foods and activities that contribute to their excessive intake.Establish five Educational activities to lose weight Setting the right priorities and goals is an important activity to focus on when losing weight. Physical and dietary activity changes lead to achieving long-term weight change. In order to be successful, the patient should select few manageable goals at a time. Self-monitoring is the other educational activity used to check a patient’s behavior in terms of calorie intake, vegetable servings and physical activities undertaken (Dudek & Dudek, 2013). Monitoring one’s behavior helps one move closer towards a desired direction and produce records for review by a healthcare provider.Weight affects the self esteem of an individual. Excessive weight evokes negative reactions from the society. Educating patients of the need to watch their weight may guarantee a reduction in weight loss. A patient ought to know that the amount of weight needed to improve their health is much less than the weight they wish to lose.

Corporate Social Responsibility in Developing Countries

Corporate Social Responsibility in Developing Countries Corporate Social Responsibility in developing countries such as India using Tata Nano as a case study 1. Introduction A companys main business objective is maximisation of shareholders wealth by means of achieving higher profit. Business managers are entrusted with shareholders money so that they could run the company efficiently and profitably. According to Sloan (1964) â€Å"the strategic aim of a business is to earn a return on capital and if any particular case the return in the long run is not satisfactory, then the deficiency should be corrected or the activity abandoned for a more favourable one.† This suggests that companies are run for profit motives and this should be the top most priority of any management. However Globalisation has brought about a change in notion concerning the business objective of any company, arguments are being put forward that the business activities must take into account human and social welfare. According to Peter Drucker (1954), â€Å"the enterprise is an organ of society and its actions have a decisive impact on the social scene. It is thus important for management to realize that it must consider the impact of every business policy and business actions upon society. It has to consider whether the action is likely to promote the public good, to advance the basic belief of society, to contribute to its stability, strength and harmony†. A business enterprise is a major user of nature, society and environment; therefore it must be responsible towards their protection and development. Depletion of natural resources and causes like global warming has brought a lot attention to the sustainable use of these resources and companies are going to play a major role in ensuring this. So this marks a shift in the company objective that no longer can they only be guided by the sole aim of making profit but they should be take actions to ensure the welfare of the society in which they operate. This brings out the concept of â€Å"Corporate Social Responsibility†: Corporations acting as citizens of a society in a responsible manner ensuring the well beings of others in the society. The International Standards Organisation (ISO) describes CSR as â€Å"a balanced approach for organisations to address economic, social and environmental issues in a way that aims to benefit people, community and society† (ISO, 2002). 1.1 Rationale behind the Research Corporate social responsibility has gained widespread attention in most developed countries; policies practices are being developed by corporations to abide by standards of environment pollution, use of human capital etc. However in less developed countries this is not a much heard or debated topic. According to Steiner Steiner (2000), â€Å"In less developed countries there is often no indigenous sense of corporate responsibility.† There are a lot of loopholes in the system and business activities are not often concentrated on human/ social welfare. Austin (1990) argues that the extremity and pervasiveness of poverty in less developed countries places a special responsibility on business, as a vehicle for creating economic progress that will help alleviate this deprivation. With developing economies a lot of importance is given to industrial upliftment and that might come at a cost of social welfare or benefit. This research aims to identify the CSR policies and practices being in use in developing countries such as India with a special reference to TATA Nano. India is a developing country which has recorded a growth rate of more than 9% for 3 years upto 2008 and has seen a decade of 7% growth. (www.economicshelp.org: accessed on 10th January 2010). In spite of the global economic slowdown is slated to grow at around 7.5% for this year (2010). The rapid growth in economy has increased the standards of living and has created huge disposable income among Indians. The car manufacturers are taking advantage of this huge growth and are coming up with various models to tap into this growing market. TATA one of the most reputed business firms of India have come up with a car called TATA Nano which is slated to be the cheapest car in the world. The price is kept at $2500 which is equivalent to 100,000 INR. The objective behind this to make four wheelers available to every common man in India; this is touted to be a very big success. I have my own reservations concerning it; what if masses can afford this car, will it not increase the fuel consump tion, thereby creating more pollution? Will it not put a huge burden on roads which are already suffering from traffic congestion? This research aims to find out whether TATA is acting in a responsible manner by launching this car. 1.2 Objectives The research can be subdivided into four parts: 1. To identify the state of CSR in developing countries such as India 2. To evaluate public awareness concerning issues such as CSR in India 3. To evaluate the impact of TATA Nano on environment, traffic congestion, demand for fuel etc 4. To suggest a number of ways in which companies in developing countries can develop frameworks to act in a more responsible manner 2. Literature Review There are numerous ways to classify the literature on CSR in developing countries i.e. in terms of content (thematic coverage), type (epistemological approach), and level (focus of analysis). The analysis would be done by each way separately: 2.1 Content Theme We would use the same classification as Lockett et al. (2006) did, the CSR literature can be categorized into four CSR themes: social, environmental, ethics, and stakeholders. One point that immediately comes to light by applying this categorization to the literature on CSR is that, in contrast to Lockett et al.s (2006) findings that most CSR articles in top management journals focus on ethical and environmental themes, most scholarly work on CSR in developing countries focuses on the social theme. Also social issues are in general given more political, economic, and media coverage in developing countries than environmental, ethical, or stakeholder issues (Schmidheiny, 2006). 2.2 Knowledge Type Lockett et al. (2006) had also classified the CSR literature by knowledge type. He found even split between theoretical and empirical research. Lockett et al. (2006) found that 89% of theoretical CSR papers are non-normative, in the CSR in developing countries literature, the balance is far more evenly split. This is mainly because relatively large number of papers on the role of â€Å"business in development† tends to adopt a normative, critical perspective (Blowfield and Frynas, 2005). Also if we see empirical research, there are also differences. According to Lockett et al. (2006), the CSR literature is dominated by quantitative methods (80%), while CSR papers on developing countries are more likely to be qualitative. Most research on CSR in developing countries to date has either generalized about all developing countries (e.g. Frynas, 2006), or focused at a national level. In terms of generic literature, Corporate Citizenship in developing countries (Pedersen and Huniche, 2006) is a useful compendium, as are special issues on CSR in developing countries that have appeared in the Journal of Corporate Citizenship (issue 24, 2006), International Affairs (81(3), 2005) and Development (47(3), 2004). Despite the focus on countries in the literature, only about a fifth of all developing countries have had any CSR journal articles published on them. Of these, the most commonly analyzed and written about countries are China, India, Malaysia, Pakistan, South Africa, and Thailand. Analysis at a regional level (notably Africa, Asia, and Latin America) is becoming more common, but papers at the sector, corporate, or individual level remain relatively scarce. 2.3 Global Most of the literature concentrates on CSR in a global context and there is very little empirical research on the nature and extent of CSR in developing countries. One notable exception is Baskins (2006) research on the reported corporate responsibility behavior of 127 leading companies from 21 emerging markets across Asia, Africa, Latin America, and Central and Eastern Europe, which he compares with over 1,700 leading companies in high-income OECD countries. Looking at three generic indicators of CSR, Baskin (2006) finds that emerging market companies have a respectable representation in the Dow Jones â€Å"Sustainability Index† and show rising levels of take-up of the Global Reporting Initiative and ISO 14001. Baskin (2006) also showed that emerging markets lag the OECD significantly on reporting on business ethics and equal opportunities, are roughly at par on environmental reporting, and show comparable reporting variance on women on company boards, training and occupation al health and safety . Despite the limitations of using reporting as an indicator of CSR performance and the danger of representing regions by just a few countries (e.g. only two of the 53 countries in Africa were included in the sample), the Baskin (2006) study does provide some insight into the level of CSR activity in developing countries, concluding that: ‘there is not a vast difference in the approach to reported corporate responsibility between leading companies in high income OECD countries and their emerging-market peers. Nonetheless, corporate responsibility in emerging markets, while more extensive than commonly believed, is less embedded in corporate strategies, less pervasive and less politically rooted than in most high-income OECD countries (p. 46). 2.4 Regional Asia Major coverage of the Asia in the field of CSR often focus on China (e.g. Zhuang and Wheale, 2004), India (e.g. Balasubramanian et al., 2005), Indonesia (e.g. Blowfield, 2004), Malaysia (e.g. Zulkifli and Amran, 2006), Pakistan (e.g. Lund-Thomsen, 2004), and Thailand (e.g. Kaufman et al., 2004). Other countries that have had less attention include Bangladesh (Nielsen, 2005), the Pacific Forum Islands (Prasad, 2004), Sri Lanka (Luken and Stares, 2005), and Vietnam (Prieto-Carron, 2006b). Birch and Moon (2004) noted that â€Å"CSR performance varies greatly between countries in Asia, with a wide range of CSR issues being tackled (e.g. education, environment, employee welfare) and modes of action (e.g. foundations, volunteering, and partnerships)†. In one of the survey on CSR reporting in Asia, Chapple and Moon (2005) find that nearly three quarters of large companies in India present themselves as having CSR policies and practices versus only a quarter in Indonesia and between t hese two extremes are Thailand (42%), Malaysia (32%), and the Philippines (30%). They also infer from the research that the evolution of CSR in Asia tends to occur in three waves, first being community involvement followed by successive second and third waves of socially responsible production processes and employee relations. In a comparative survey of CSR in 15 countries across Europe, North America, and Asia, Welford (2005) speculates that the low response rates from countries like Hong Kong, Malaysia, Mexico, and Thailand may in itself be an indicator of CSR being less prevalent in developing countries. This seems to be borne out by the research findings, in which these countries fairly consistently underperform when compared with developed countries across 20 aspects of CSR measured by the survey. Africa The literature on CSR in Africa is predominantly based on South Africa (Visser, 2005a), while other pockets of research exist for Cà ´te DIvoire (e.g. Schrage and Ewing, 2005), Kenya (e.g. Dolan and Opondo, 2005), Nigeria (e.g. Amaeshi et al., 2006), Tanzania (e.g. Egels, 2005), and Mali and Zambia (e.g. Hamann et al., 2005). Very few papers are focused on industry sectors, with traditionally high impact sectors like agriculture (e.g. Blowfield, 2003), mining (e.g. Kapelus, 2002), and petrochemicals (e.g. Acutt et al., 2004) featuring most prominently. Two of the best sources of literature on Africa are Corporate Citizenship in Africa (Visser et al., 2006) and the Journal of Corporate Citizenship special issue on CSR in Africa (issue 18, summer 2005). The latter concludes that ‘academic institutions and researchers focusing specifically on corporate citizenship in Africa remain few and under-developed (Visser et al., 2005: 19). This is confirmed by a review of the CSR literatu re on Africa between 1995 and 2005 (Visser, 2006a), which found that that only 12 of Africas 53 countries have had any research published in core CSR journals, with 57% of all articles focused on South Africa and 16% on Nigeria. The latter partly reflects the high media profile generated around corporate citizenship issues and the petrochemical sector, especially focused on Shell and their impacts on the Ogoni people (Ite, 2004). Economic and philanthropic aspects of CSR, rather than the legal and ethical responsibilities, will continue to dominate CSR conceptualization and practice in Africa (Visser, 2007). Corporate social responsibility in South America is not as much covered subject as other underdeveloped countries (Haslam, 2007), the focus has been mainly concentrated on Argentina (e.g. Newell and Muro, 2006), Brazil (e.g. Vivarta and Canela, 2006) and Mexico (e.g. Weyzig, 2006), although Nicaragua (Prieto-Carron, 2006a) and Venezuela (Peindado-Vara, 2006) also feature. De Oliveira in 2006 has noted that the Corporate social responsibility agenda in South America has been heavily influenced by socio-economic and political conditions, which have invariably led to problems like, unemployment, in- equality, and crime. Schmidheiny has in 2006 stated that Corporate social responsibility has ushered a positive effect in South America. The trend towards increasing CSR in the region has been generally upward. For example, Correa et al. has reported in his article in 2004 that by 2004 there were thousand South American companies which were member of organization called EMPRESA (the hemisphe re-wide CSR network), another three hundred companies were members of the â€Å"World Business Council† for Sustainable Development, also another fourteen hundred had obtained ISO 14001 certification, and one hundred eighteen had signed UN Global Compact. 2.5 Motivations Until now we have classified the CSR literature on a regional level. To further see the difference between the CSR in developing countries and developed countries we would now isolate motivations for CSR in developing countries, with the help of this we would be able to see why the CSR in developing countries is so unique. Some of the motivations for CSR that I have isolated with the help of literature review are: 2.5.1 Cultural Tradition The term CSR has been widely used in western countries and hence there is a widespread believe that CSR is a Western thing but on the contrary there is evidence that CSR in developing countries has been around for centuries and its man pillar has been deep-rooted indigenous cultural traditions of philanthropy and business ethics. An excellent example was given by, Visser and Macintosh in 1998 they have quoted that â€Å"the ethical condemnation of usurious business practices in developing countries that practice Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity dates back thousands of years†. Another example was given by Frynas (2006) ‘business practices based on moral principles were advocated by the Indian statesman and philosopher Kautilya in the 4th century BC. If we take South American context, Sanborn (2002), quoted in Logsdon et al. (2006) that ‘varied traditions of community self-help and solidarity stretch back to the regions pre-Hispanic cultures, and include t he mutual aid societies, trade unions and professional associations that emerged in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Logsdon et al.s (2006) stated that â€Å"One myth is that CSR in Mexico is new, another is that US firms brought CSR to Mexico, and a third is that CSR as practised by Mexican firms simply reflects the CSR patterns and activities of US firms†. Even if we take CSR for more modern times I have found that it was heavily influenced by local culture, Vivess (2006) had conducted survey of over 1,300 enterprises in South America, his findings were that the regions religious beliefs are one of the major motivations for CSR. Also Nelson (2004) founded that Buddhist traditions in Asia are aligned with CSR. Also for Asia, Chapple and Moon (2005) had reached a same conclusion, that â€Å"CSR does vary considerably among Asian countries but that this variation is not explained by [levels of] development but by factors in the respective national business systems†, t his was consistent with Birch and Moons (2004) finding in his paper for the Journal of Corporate Citizenship special issue on CSR in Asia. If we take African the findings are same, Amaeshi et al. (2006) found that CSR in Nigeria is heavily influenced by local socio-cultural influences like communalism, ethnic religious beliefs, and charitable traditions. 2.5.2 Political Upheaval CSR in developing countries are heavily influenced by the social and political reforms, which drives business behavior towards integrating social and ethical issues. De Oliveira (2006) has argued that â€Å"the political and associated social and economic changes in Latin America since the 1980s, including democratization, liberalization, and privatization, have shifted the role of business towards taking greater responsibility for social and environmental issues†. A recent example can be the case of South Africa, the political changes towards democracy and end of decades of apartheid have been a significant driver for CSR, through the practice of improved corporate governance (Roussouw et al., 2002), collective business action for social upliftment (Fourie and Eloff, 2005) has led to black economic empowerment (Fig, 2005), and business ethics (Malan, 2005). Visser (2005a) lists more than a dozen examples of socio-economic, environmental, and labor-related legislative reform i n South Africa between 1994 and 2004 that have a direct bearing on CSR. Another excellent example can be given of many central and eastern European countries which have been recently inducted into European Union, these countries have now shifted towards CSR .(Baskin, 2006). 2.5.3 Social and Economic Conditions It is often said that the CSR in developing countries is directly shaped by the social conditions and economic environment present in the country in which firms operate and the development priorities this creates. Amaeshi et al. (2006), had argued that â€Å"CSR in Nigeria is specifically aimed at addressing the socio-economic development challenges of the country, including poverty alleviation, health-care provision, infrastructure development, and education. This, they argue, stands in stark contrast to many Western CSR priorities such as consumer protection, fair trade, green marketing, climate change concerns, or socially responsible investments.† Schmidheiny (2006) had questioned the appropriateness of foreign CSR approaches, citing examples from South America, where the most important issues like poverty, illiteracy, crime and tax avoidance are not included in the CSR conceptions in developed countries, but if we consider locally developed CSR approaches, then they are m ost likely to respond to the many local social and environmental problems, such as deforestation, unemployment, income inequality, and crime (De Oliveira, 2006). 2.5.4 Poor Governance CSR can be seen as a form of private or self governance or a response to poor governance (Levy and Kaplan, Chapter 19). A particular important aspect of the CSR for developing countries is the fact it is often seen as a way to plug the gaps left by weak, corrupt, or under-resourced governments that fail to adequately provide various social services. Furthermore, â€Å"as many developing country government initiatives to improve living conditions falter, proponents of [CSR and bottom of the pyramid] strategies argue that companies can assume this role†. Such proponents of CSR, Blowfield and Frynas (2005) observe, â€Å"an alternative to government† which is â€Å"frequently advocated as a means of filling gaps in governance that have arisen with the acceleration of liberal economic globalization†. A survey was conducted by â€Å"World Business Council for Sustainable Development† (WBCSD 2000) in their report they illustrated that, when asked how CSR should be defined, peoples in Ghana stressed ‘building local capacity and ‘filling in when government falls short. Moon (2002a) in his paper has argued that, this phenomenon is part of a broader political shift towards ‘new governance or â€Å"alternate governance† approaches, here the local governments are trying to share responsibilities and to develop more effective modes of operation, the reason may be result of overload or of a view that they do not have a monopoly of solutions for society. This is often in the form of social partnerships with non-profit and for-profit organizations. Moon et al. (2005) has cited this phenomenon as an example of companies acting in a ‘civic republicanism mode. In addition to being encouraged to step in where once only governments acted, through the mechanism of either privatization or welfare reform, Matten and Crane (2005) also suggest that companies enter the arena of citizenship where government has not as yet administ ered citizenship rights, for example, improving working conditions in sweatshops, ensuring for employees a living wage, and financing the schooling of child laborers in the absence of legislation requiring this. However, this approach is not without its share of criticism ,Hamann et al. (2005) had argued that CSR is not adequate response to these governance gaps and that more proactive steps involving local government towards accountability and inclusiveness is necessary. Blowfield and Frynas (2005) had questioned the very logic: â€Å"Is CSR a stepping-stone on the path to better national regulation in developing countries? Or is it part of a longer term project for overcoming the weaknesses of territorially prescribed judicial and welfare mechanisms that is, addressing the limitations of the nation-state in regulating a global economy?† There are also serious questions about the dependencies this governance gap approach to CSR creates, especially where communities become re liant for their social services on companies whose primary accountability is to their shareholders. Hence, multinationals may cut expenditure, or disinvest from a region if the economics dictates that they will be more profitable elsewhere. There is also the issue of perceived complicity between governments and companies, as Shell all too painfully experienced in Nigeria (Ite, 2004). 2.5.5 Crisis Response Crises associated with developing countries have in the past affected CSR responses. These crises can come in the form of economic, social, environmental, health-related, or industrial accident. An excellent example was quoted by Newell (2005) that â€Å"the economic crisis in Argentina in 2001-2 marked a significant turning point in CSR, prompting debates about the role of business in poverty alleviation†. Another example can be of climate change (Hoffman, 2005) and HIV/AIDS (Dunfee, 2006) these crises have bought CSR in developing countries into lime-light. Catastrophic events with immediate impact are often more likely to elicit CSR responses, especially of the philanthropic kind. The companys quick response to the Asian tsunami is an excellent case (Fernando, 2007). However, companies can also have negative affect like industrial accidents. Examples include Union Carbides response to the 1984 Bhopal disaster in India (Shrivastava, 1995) and Shells response to the hanging o f human rights activist Ken Saro-Wiwa in Nigeria in 1995 (Wheeler et al., 2002). 2.5.6 Market Access Not all the intention of the companies in developing the CSR is for good, some companies may also see these unfulfilled human needs as an untapped market. This can be corroborated from the fact that there lies burgeoning literature on ‘bottom of the pyramid strategies, which refer to business models that focus on turning the four billion poor people in the world into consumers (Prahalad and Hammond, 2002; London and Hart, 2004; Rangan et al., 2007). CSR may be working towards enabling companies in developing countries which are trying to access markets in the developed world. An example in this support can be given from, Baskin (2006), he had identified that â€Å"competitive advantage in international markets as one of the key drivers for CSR in Central and Eastern Europe and Asia†, also Arayas (2006) survey of CSR reporting among the top two hundred and fifty companies in South America found that â€Å"businesses with an international sales orientation were almost fiv e times more likely to report than companies that sell products regionally or locally†. This is has become increasingly relevant as more and more companies from developing countries are moving towards globalization and in their effort they need to comply with international stock market listing requirements, including various forms CSR code compliance (Visser, 2005a). The above argument was also stated by Chapple and Moons (2005) study of 7 countries in Asia, which found a strong relationship between international exposure, either in terms of international sales or foreign ownership, and CSR reporting. CSR is also sometimes used as a partnership approach to creating or developing new markets. Another example in support towards this, is the case of , AED and Mark collaboration with Exxon Mobil that has created a viable market for insecticide-treated mosquito nets in Africa, while improving pregnant womens access to these nets, through the delivery of targeted subsidies (Diara et al., 2004). Similalry, ABB used a partnership approach to CSR to deliver a rural electrification project in Tanzania (Egels, 2005). 2.5.7International Standardization There is a widespread belief that the Western countries has imposed CSR approaches on the global South, but on the contrary there is ample evidence present to suggest that CSR codes and standards are a key driver for CSR in developing countries. For example Baskins (2006) survey of CSR practices in emerging markets has indicated towards growing acceptance rate of ISO 14001 and the â€Å"Global Reporting Initiatives Sustainability Reporting Guidelines†. These codes are now used as a CSR response in sectors that are prevalent in developing countries, such as horticulture (Dolan and Opondo, 2005), cocoa (Schrage and Ewing, 2005), and textiles (Kaufman et al., 2004), as well as some social issues in developing countries, like child labor (Kolk and Van Tulder, 2002) or women in the workplace (Prieto-Carron, 2004). In general it is seen that CSR is driven by standardization imposed by MNCs in striving to achieve global consistency among its subsidiaries and operations in developing countries. For example, Chapple and Moon (2005) found that â€Å"multinational companies are more likely to adopt CSR than those operating solely in their home country, but that the profile of their CSR tend to reflect the profile of the country of operation rather than the country of origin†. 2.5.8 Investment Incentives Multinational companies investments in developing countries are generally linked to the social conditions prevalent in those countries (Gabriel, 1972). Now a day these investments are being screened for CSR performance. In response to this socially responsible investment (SRI) is becoming a major factor CSR in developing countries. Baskin (2006) had noted â€Å"that approximately 8% of emerging market companies on the Dow Jones World Index is included in the Dow Jones Sustainability Index, compared with around 13% of high-income companies†. In other developing countries, like South Africa, the SRI trend is well researched (AICC, 2002). The SRI movement in the 1980s had led to the anti-apartheid disinvestment phenomenon, also since 1992, South Africa has introduced twenty SRI funds which track companies social, ethical, and environmental performance (Visser, 2005a). According to research by the â€Å"African Institute of Corporate Citizenship â€Å"(AICC) (2002), the size of the South African SRI market in 2001 was already 1.55% of the total investment market. In an another major development, in May 2004, the Johannesburg Securities Exchange had launched its own tradable SRI Index, the first of its kind in an emerging market (Sonnenberg et al., 2004). A similar index was also introduced in Brazil. Closely linked to the literature on SRI in developing countries is the debate about the business case for CSR. Very few instrumental studies have been done, a survey done in Thailand by Connelly and Limpaphayom (2004) had showed that environmental reporting had not negatively impacted on short-term profitability and has in fact generated a positive relationship with firm valuation. More generally, a report by Sustainability (2002) uses case studies to illustrate various business benefits associated with addressing sustainability in developing countries. Furthermore, Goyal (2006) contends that CSR may serve as a signaling device for developing countries seeking to assess foreign direct investment proposals by unknown foreign firms. 2.5.9 Stakeholders In general the governmental has not got strong control or prohibitive laws over the social, ethical, and environmental performance of companies in developing countries, hence in its absence activism by stake- holder groups has become major source of CSR. Lund-Thomsen (2004) had described describes this as â€Å"an outcome of micro-level struggles between companies and communities over the distribution of social and environmental hazards which are created when global political and economic forces interact with local contexts around the world†. In research it was found that there are mainly four kinds of groups namely development agencies (Jenkins, 2005), trade unions (Kaufman et al., 2004), international NGOs (Christian Aid, 2005), and business associations (WBCSD, 2000) has emerged as the most impotant activists for CSR. These four groups had also provided a support for local NGOs. Another goup has also emerged in recent times namely media, it has also emerged as a key support er for promoting CSR in developing countries (Vivarta and Canela, 2006). Activism by these groups in developing countries has taken various forms, which was classified by Newell (2001) â€Å"as civil regulation, litigation against companies, and international legal instruments†. Of these, civil regulation is perhaps the most common and effective. Bendell (2000) describes this as the theory that ‘businesses are being regulated by civil society, through the dual effect of negative impacts from conflict and benefits from collaboration [which] provides new means for people to hold companies accountable, thereby democratising the economy directly. There are numerous examples of civil regulation in action in the developing world of which South Africa is a rather striking case in point (Visser, 2005a). This has manifested itself mainly through community groups challenging companies over whether they are upholding the constitutional rights of citizens. Various land mark cases b etween 1994 and 2004 suggest that, although civil society still tends to lack capacity and resources in South Africa, this has been an effective strategy. Stakeholder activism has also taken a constructive approach towards encouraging CSR, through groups like the National Business Initiative and partnerships between business and NGOs. Stakeholder activism can also be a source of criticism of CSR, arguing that it is an inadequate response to the social and environmental challenges of developing countries. The Christian Aid (2005) report Behind the Mask: The Real Face of Corporate Social Responsibility epitomizes this critical approach, and may be a driver for an enlarged conception and practice of CSR in developing countries. 2.5.10 Supply Chain Management Another Corporate Social Responsibility in Developing Countries Corporate Social Responsibility in Developing Countries Corporate Social Responsibility in developing countries such as India using Tata Nano as a case study 1. Introduction A companys main business objective is maximisation of shareholders wealth by means of achieving higher profit. Business managers are entrusted with shareholders money so that they could run the company efficiently and profitably. According to Sloan (1964) â€Å"the strategic aim of a business is to earn a return on capital and if any particular case the return in the long run is not satisfactory, then the deficiency should be corrected or the activity abandoned for a more favourable one.† This suggests that companies are run for profit motives and this should be the top most priority of any management. However Globalisation has brought about a change in notion concerning the business objective of any company, arguments are being put forward that the business activities must take into account human and social welfare. According to Peter Drucker (1954), â€Å"the enterprise is an organ of society and its actions have a decisive impact on the social scene. It is thus important for management to realize that it must consider the impact of every business policy and business actions upon society. It has to consider whether the action is likely to promote the public good, to advance the basic belief of society, to contribute to its stability, strength and harmony†. A business enterprise is a major user of nature, society and environment; therefore it must be responsible towards their protection and development. Depletion of natural resources and causes like global warming has brought a lot attention to the sustainable use of these resources and companies are going to play a major role in ensuring this. So this marks a shift in the company objective that no longer can they only be guided by the sole aim of making profit but they should be take actions to ensure the welfare of the society in which they operate. This brings out the concept of â€Å"Corporate Social Responsibility†: Corporations acting as citizens of a society in a responsible manner ensuring the well beings of others in the society. The International Standards Organisation (ISO) describes CSR as â€Å"a balanced approach for organisations to address economic, social and environmental issues in a way that aims to benefit people, community and society† (ISO, 2002). 1.1 Rationale behind the Research Corporate social responsibility has gained widespread attention in most developed countries; policies practices are being developed by corporations to abide by standards of environment pollution, use of human capital etc. However in less developed countries this is not a much heard or debated topic. According to Steiner Steiner (2000), â€Å"In less developed countries there is often no indigenous sense of corporate responsibility.† There are a lot of loopholes in the system and business activities are not often concentrated on human/ social welfare. Austin (1990) argues that the extremity and pervasiveness of poverty in less developed countries places a special responsibility on business, as a vehicle for creating economic progress that will help alleviate this deprivation. With developing economies a lot of importance is given to industrial upliftment and that might come at a cost of social welfare or benefit. This research aims to identify the CSR policies and practices being in use in developing countries such as India with a special reference to TATA Nano. India is a developing country which has recorded a growth rate of more than 9% for 3 years upto 2008 and has seen a decade of 7% growth. (www.economicshelp.org: accessed on 10th January 2010). In spite of the global economic slowdown is slated to grow at around 7.5% for this year (2010). The rapid growth in economy has increased the standards of living and has created huge disposable income among Indians. The car manufacturers are taking advantage of this huge growth and are coming up with various models to tap into this growing market. TATA one of the most reputed business firms of India have come up with a car called TATA Nano which is slated to be the cheapest car in the world. The price is kept at $2500 which is equivalent to 100,000 INR. The objective behind this to make four wheelers available to every common man in India; this is touted to be a very big success. I have my own reservations concerning it; what if masses can afford this car, will it not increase the fuel consump tion, thereby creating more pollution? Will it not put a huge burden on roads which are already suffering from traffic congestion? This research aims to find out whether TATA is acting in a responsible manner by launching this car. 1.2 Objectives The research can be subdivided into four parts: 1. To identify the state of CSR in developing countries such as India 2. To evaluate public awareness concerning issues such as CSR in India 3. To evaluate the impact of TATA Nano on environment, traffic congestion, demand for fuel etc 4. To suggest a number of ways in which companies in developing countries can develop frameworks to act in a more responsible manner 2. Literature Review There are numerous ways to classify the literature on CSR in developing countries i.e. in terms of content (thematic coverage), type (epistemological approach), and level (focus of analysis). The analysis would be done by each way separately: 2.1 Content Theme We would use the same classification as Lockett et al. (2006) did, the CSR literature can be categorized into four CSR themes: social, environmental, ethics, and stakeholders. One point that immediately comes to light by applying this categorization to the literature on CSR is that, in contrast to Lockett et al.s (2006) findings that most CSR articles in top management journals focus on ethical and environmental themes, most scholarly work on CSR in developing countries focuses on the social theme. Also social issues are in general given more political, economic, and media coverage in developing countries than environmental, ethical, or stakeholder issues (Schmidheiny, 2006). 2.2 Knowledge Type Lockett et al. (2006) had also classified the CSR literature by knowledge type. He found even split between theoretical and empirical research. Lockett et al. (2006) found that 89% of theoretical CSR papers are non-normative, in the CSR in developing countries literature, the balance is far more evenly split. This is mainly because relatively large number of papers on the role of â€Å"business in development† tends to adopt a normative, critical perspective (Blowfield and Frynas, 2005). Also if we see empirical research, there are also differences. According to Lockett et al. (2006), the CSR literature is dominated by quantitative methods (80%), while CSR papers on developing countries are more likely to be qualitative. Most research on CSR in developing countries to date has either generalized about all developing countries (e.g. Frynas, 2006), or focused at a national level. In terms of generic literature, Corporate Citizenship in developing countries (Pedersen and Huniche, 2006) is a useful compendium, as are special issues on CSR in developing countries that have appeared in the Journal of Corporate Citizenship (issue 24, 2006), International Affairs (81(3), 2005) and Development (47(3), 2004). Despite the focus on countries in the literature, only about a fifth of all developing countries have had any CSR journal articles published on them. Of these, the most commonly analyzed and written about countries are China, India, Malaysia, Pakistan, South Africa, and Thailand. Analysis at a regional level (notably Africa, Asia, and Latin America) is becoming more common, but papers at the sector, corporate, or individual level remain relatively scarce. 2.3 Global Most of the literature concentrates on CSR in a global context and there is very little empirical research on the nature and extent of CSR in developing countries. One notable exception is Baskins (2006) research on the reported corporate responsibility behavior of 127 leading companies from 21 emerging markets across Asia, Africa, Latin America, and Central and Eastern Europe, which he compares with over 1,700 leading companies in high-income OECD countries. Looking at three generic indicators of CSR, Baskin (2006) finds that emerging market companies have a respectable representation in the Dow Jones â€Å"Sustainability Index† and show rising levels of take-up of the Global Reporting Initiative and ISO 14001. Baskin (2006) also showed that emerging markets lag the OECD significantly on reporting on business ethics and equal opportunities, are roughly at par on environmental reporting, and show comparable reporting variance on women on company boards, training and occupation al health and safety . Despite the limitations of using reporting as an indicator of CSR performance and the danger of representing regions by just a few countries (e.g. only two of the 53 countries in Africa were included in the sample), the Baskin (2006) study does provide some insight into the level of CSR activity in developing countries, concluding that: ‘there is not a vast difference in the approach to reported corporate responsibility between leading companies in high income OECD countries and their emerging-market peers. Nonetheless, corporate responsibility in emerging markets, while more extensive than commonly believed, is less embedded in corporate strategies, less pervasive and less politically rooted than in most high-income OECD countries (p. 46). 2.4 Regional Asia Major coverage of the Asia in the field of CSR often focus on China (e.g. Zhuang and Wheale, 2004), India (e.g. Balasubramanian et al., 2005), Indonesia (e.g. Blowfield, 2004), Malaysia (e.g. Zulkifli and Amran, 2006), Pakistan (e.g. Lund-Thomsen, 2004), and Thailand (e.g. Kaufman et al., 2004). Other countries that have had less attention include Bangladesh (Nielsen, 2005), the Pacific Forum Islands (Prasad, 2004), Sri Lanka (Luken and Stares, 2005), and Vietnam (Prieto-Carron, 2006b). Birch and Moon (2004) noted that â€Å"CSR performance varies greatly between countries in Asia, with a wide range of CSR issues being tackled (e.g. education, environment, employee welfare) and modes of action (e.g. foundations, volunteering, and partnerships)†. In one of the survey on CSR reporting in Asia, Chapple and Moon (2005) find that nearly three quarters of large companies in India present themselves as having CSR policies and practices versus only a quarter in Indonesia and between t hese two extremes are Thailand (42%), Malaysia (32%), and the Philippines (30%). They also infer from the research that the evolution of CSR in Asia tends to occur in three waves, first being community involvement followed by successive second and third waves of socially responsible production processes and employee relations. In a comparative survey of CSR in 15 countries across Europe, North America, and Asia, Welford (2005) speculates that the low response rates from countries like Hong Kong, Malaysia, Mexico, and Thailand may in itself be an indicator of CSR being less prevalent in developing countries. This seems to be borne out by the research findings, in which these countries fairly consistently underperform when compared with developed countries across 20 aspects of CSR measured by the survey. Africa The literature on CSR in Africa is predominantly based on South Africa (Visser, 2005a), while other pockets of research exist for Cà ´te DIvoire (e.g. Schrage and Ewing, 2005), Kenya (e.g. Dolan and Opondo, 2005), Nigeria (e.g. Amaeshi et al., 2006), Tanzania (e.g. Egels, 2005), and Mali and Zambia (e.g. Hamann et al., 2005). Very few papers are focused on industry sectors, with traditionally high impact sectors like agriculture (e.g. Blowfield, 2003), mining (e.g. Kapelus, 2002), and petrochemicals (e.g. Acutt et al., 2004) featuring most prominently. Two of the best sources of literature on Africa are Corporate Citizenship in Africa (Visser et al., 2006) and the Journal of Corporate Citizenship special issue on CSR in Africa (issue 18, summer 2005). The latter concludes that ‘academic institutions and researchers focusing specifically on corporate citizenship in Africa remain few and under-developed (Visser et al., 2005: 19). This is confirmed by a review of the CSR literatu re on Africa between 1995 and 2005 (Visser, 2006a), which found that that only 12 of Africas 53 countries have had any research published in core CSR journals, with 57% of all articles focused on South Africa and 16% on Nigeria. The latter partly reflects the high media profile generated around corporate citizenship issues and the petrochemical sector, especially focused on Shell and their impacts on the Ogoni people (Ite, 2004). Economic and philanthropic aspects of CSR, rather than the legal and ethical responsibilities, will continue to dominate CSR conceptualization and practice in Africa (Visser, 2007). Corporate social responsibility in South America is not as much covered subject as other underdeveloped countries (Haslam, 2007), the focus has been mainly concentrated on Argentina (e.g. Newell and Muro, 2006), Brazil (e.g. Vivarta and Canela, 2006) and Mexico (e.g. Weyzig, 2006), although Nicaragua (Prieto-Carron, 2006a) and Venezuela (Peindado-Vara, 2006) also feature. De Oliveira in 2006 has noted that the Corporate social responsibility agenda in South America has been heavily influenced by socio-economic and political conditions, which have invariably led to problems like, unemployment, in- equality, and crime. Schmidheiny has in 2006 stated that Corporate social responsibility has ushered a positive effect in South America. The trend towards increasing CSR in the region has been generally upward. For example, Correa et al. has reported in his article in 2004 that by 2004 there were thousand South American companies which were member of organization called EMPRESA (the hemisphe re-wide CSR network), another three hundred companies were members of the â€Å"World Business Council† for Sustainable Development, also another fourteen hundred had obtained ISO 14001 certification, and one hundred eighteen had signed UN Global Compact. 2.5 Motivations Until now we have classified the CSR literature on a regional level. To further see the difference between the CSR in developing countries and developed countries we would now isolate motivations for CSR in developing countries, with the help of this we would be able to see why the CSR in developing countries is so unique. Some of the motivations for CSR that I have isolated with the help of literature review are: 2.5.1 Cultural Tradition The term CSR has been widely used in western countries and hence there is a widespread believe that CSR is a Western thing but on the contrary there is evidence that CSR in developing countries has been around for centuries and its man pillar has been deep-rooted indigenous cultural traditions of philanthropy and business ethics. An excellent example was given by, Visser and Macintosh in 1998 they have quoted that â€Å"the ethical condemnation of usurious business practices in developing countries that practice Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity dates back thousands of years†. Another example was given by Frynas (2006) ‘business practices based on moral principles were advocated by the Indian statesman and philosopher Kautilya in the 4th century BC. If we take South American context, Sanborn (2002), quoted in Logsdon et al. (2006) that ‘varied traditions of community self-help and solidarity stretch back to the regions pre-Hispanic cultures, and include t he mutual aid societies, trade unions and professional associations that emerged in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Logsdon et al.s (2006) stated that â€Å"One myth is that CSR in Mexico is new, another is that US firms brought CSR to Mexico, and a third is that CSR as practised by Mexican firms simply reflects the CSR patterns and activities of US firms†. Even if we take CSR for more modern times I have found that it was heavily influenced by local culture, Vivess (2006) had conducted survey of over 1,300 enterprises in South America, his findings were that the regions religious beliefs are one of the major motivations for CSR. Also Nelson (2004) founded that Buddhist traditions in Asia are aligned with CSR. Also for Asia, Chapple and Moon (2005) had reached a same conclusion, that â€Å"CSR does vary considerably among Asian countries but that this variation is not explained by [levels of] development but by factors in the respective national business systems†, t his was consistent with Birch and Moons (2004) finding in his paper for the Journal of Corporate Citizenship special issue on CSR in Asia. If we take African the findings are same, Amaeshi et al. (2006) found that CSR in Nigeria is heavily influenced by local socio-cultural influences like communalism, ethnic religious beliefs, and charitable traditions. 2.5.2 Political Upheaval CSR in developing countries are heavily influenced by the social and political reforms, which drives business behavior towards integrating social and ethical issues. De Oliveira (2006) has argued that â€Å"the political and associated social and economic changes in Latin America since the 1980s, including democratization, liberalization, and privatization, have shifted the role of business towards taking greater responsibility for social and environmental issues†. A recent example can be the case of South Africa, the political changes towards democracy and end of decades of apartheid have been a significant driver for CSR, through the practice of improved corporate governance (Roussouw et al., 2002), collective business action for social upliftment (Fourie and Eloff, 2005) has led to black economic empowerment (Fig, 2005), and business ethics (Malan, 2005). Visser (2005a) lists more than a dozen examples of socio-economic, environmental, and labor-related legislative reform i n South Africa between 1994 and 2004 that have a direct bearing on CSR. Another excellent example can be given of many central and eastern European countries which have been recently inducted into European Union, these countries have now shifted towards CSR .(Baskin, 2006). 2.5.3 Social and Economic Conditions It is often said that the CSR in developing countries is directly shaped by the social conditions and economic environment present in the country in which firms operate and the development priorities this creates. Amaeshi et al. (2006), had argued that â€Å"CSR in Nigeria is specifically aimed at addressing the socio-economic development challenges of the country, including poverty alleviation, health-care provision, infrastructure development, and education. This, they argue, stands in stark contrast to many Western CSR priorities such as consumer protection, fair trade, green marketing, climate change concerns, or socially responsible investments.† Schmidheiny (2006) had questioned the appropriateness of foreign CSR approaches, citing examples from South America, where the most important issues like poverty, illiteracy, crime and tax avoidance are not included in the CSR conceptions in developed countries, but if we consider locally developed CSR approaches, then they are m ost likely to respond to the many local social and environmental problems, such as deforestation, unemployment, income inequality, and crime (De Oliveira, 2006). 2.5.4 Poor Governance CSR can be seen as a form of private or self governance or a response to poor governance (Levy and Kaplan, Chapter 19). A particular important aspect of the CSR for developing countries is the fact it is often seen as a way to plug the gaps left by weak, corrupt, or under-resourced governments that fail to adequately provide various social services. Furthermore, â€Å"as many developing country government initiatives to improve living conditions falter, proponents of [CSR and bottom of the pyramid] strategies argue that companies can assume this role†. Such proponents of CSR, Blowfield and Frynas (2005) observe, â€Å"an alternative to government† which is â€Å"frequently advocated as a means of filling gaps in governance that have arisen with the acceleration of liberal economic globalization†. A survey was conducted by â€Å"World Business Council for Sustainable Development† (WBCSD 2000) in their report they illustrated that, when asked how CSR should be defined, peoples in Ghana stressed ‘building local capacity and ‘filling in when government falls short. Moon (2002a) in his paper has argued that, this phenomenon is part of a broader political shift towards ‘new governance or â€Å"alternate governance† approaches, here the local governments are trying to share responsibilities and to develop more effective modes of operation, the reason may be result of overload or of a view that they do not have a monopoly of solutions for society. This is often in the form of social partnerships with non-profit and for-profit organizations. Moon et al. (2005) has cited this phenomenon as an example of companies acting in a ‘civic republicanism mode. In addition to being encouraged to step in where once only governments acted, through the mechanism of either privatization or welfare reform, Matten and Crane (2005) also suggest that companies enter the arena of citizenship where government has not as yet administ ered citizenship rights, for example, improving working conditions in sweatshops, ensuring for employees a living wage, and financing the schooling of child laborers in the absence of legislation requiring this. However, this approach is not without its share of criticism ,Hamann et al. (2005) had argued that CSR is not adequate response to these governance gaps and that more proactive steps involving local government towards accountability and inclusiveness is necessary. Blowfield and Frynas (2005) had questioned the very logic: â€Å"Is CSR a stepping-stone on the path to better national regulation in developing countries? Or is it part of a longer term project for overcoming the weaknesses of territorially prescribed judicial and welfare mechanisms that is, addressing the limitations of the nation-state in regulating a global economy?† There are also serious questions about the dependencies this governance gap approach to CSR creates, especially where communities become re liant for their social services on companies whose primary accountability is to their shareholders. Hence, multinationals may cut expenditure, or disinvest from a region if the economics dictates that they will be more profitable elsewhere. There is also the issue of perceived complicity between governments and companies, as Shell all too painfully experienced in Nigeria (Ite, 2004). 2.5.5 Crisis Response Crises associated with developing countries have in the past affected CSR responses. These crises can come in the form of economic, social, environmental, health-related, or industrial accident. An excellent example was quoted by Newell (2005) that â€Å"the economic crisis in Argentina in 2001-2 marked a significant turning point in CSR, prompting debates about the role of business in poverty alleviation†. Another example can be of climate change (Hoffman, 2005) and HIV/AIDS (Dunfee, 2006) these crises have bought CSR in developing countries into lime-light. Catastrophic events with immediate impact are often more likely to elicit CSR responses, especially of the philanthropic kind. The companys quick response to the Asian tsunami is an excellent case (Fernando, 2007). However, companies can also have negative affect like industrial accidents. Examples include Union Carbides response to the 1984 Bhopal disaster in India (Shrivastava, 1995) and Shells response to the hanging o f human rights activist Ken Saro-Wiwa in Nigeria in 1995 (Wheeler et al., 2002). 2.5.6 Market Access Not all the intention of the companies in developing the CSR is for good, some companies may also see these unfulfilled human needs as an untapped market. This can be corroborated from the fact that there lies burgeoning literature on ‘bottom of the pyramid strategies, which refer to business models that focus on turning the four billion poor people in the world into consumers (Prahalad and Hammond, 2002; London and Hart, 2004; Rangan et al., 2007). CSR may be working towards enabling companies in developing countries which are trying to access markets in the developed world. An example in this support can be given from, Baskin (2006), he had identified that â€Å"competitive advantage in international markets as one of the key drivers for CSR in Central and Eastern Europe and Asia†, also Arayas (2006) survey of CSR reporting among the top two hundred and fifty companies in South America found that â€Å"businesses with an international sales orientation were almost fiv e times more likely to report than companies that sell products regionally or locally†. This is has become increasingly relevant as more and more companies from developing countries are moving towards globalization and in their effort they need to comply with international stock market listing requirements, including various forms CSR code compliance (Visser, 2005a). The above argument was also stated by Chapple and Moons (2005) study of 7 countries in Asia, which found a strong relationship between international exposure, either in terms of international sales or foreign ownership, and CSR reporting. CSR is also sometimes used as a partnership approach to creating or developing new markets. Another example in support towards this, is the case of , AED and Mark collaboration with Exxon Mobil that has created a viable market for insecticide-treated mosquito nets in Africa, while improving pregnant womens access to these nets, through the delivery of targeted subsidies (Diara et al., 2004). Similalry, ABB used a partnership approach to CSR to deliver a rural electrification project in Tanzania (Egels, 2005). 2.5.7International Standardization There is a widespread belief that the Western countries has imposed CSR approaches on the global South, but on the contrary there is ample evidence present to suggest that CSR codes and standards are a key driver for CSR in developing countries. For example Baskins (2006) survey of CSR practices in emerging markets has indicated towards growing acceptance rate of ISO 14001 and the â€Å"Global Reporting Initiatives Sustainability Reporting Guidelines†. These codes are now used as a CSR response in sectors that are prevalent in developing countries, such as horticulture (Dolan and Opondo, 2005), cocoa (Schrage and Ewing, 2005), and textiles (Kaufman et al., 2004), as well as some social issues in developing countries, like child labor (Kolk and Van Tulder, 2002) or women in the workplace (Prieto-Carron, 2004). In general it is seen that CSR is driven by standardization imposed by MNCs in striving to achieve global consistency among its subsidiaries and operations in developing countries. For example, Chapple and Moon (2005) found that â€Å"multinational companies are more likely to adopt CSR than those operating solely in their home country, but that the profile of their CSR tend to reflect the profile of the country of operation rather than the country of origin†. 2.5.8 Investment Incentives Multinational companies investments in developing countries are generally linked to the social conditions prevalent in those countries (Gabriel, 1972). Now a day these investments are being screened for CSR performance. In response to this socially responsible investment (SRI) is becoming a major factor CSR in developing countries. Baskin (2006) had noted â€Å"that approximately 8% of emerging market companies on the Dow Jones World Index is included in the Dow Jones Sustainability Index, compared with around 13% of high-income companies†. In other developing countries, like South Africa, the SRI trend is well researched (AICC, 2002). The SRI movement in the 1980s had led to the anti-apartheid disinvestment phenomenon, also since 1992, South Africa has introduced twenty SRI funds which track companies social, ethical, and environmental performance (Visser, 2005a). According to research by the â€Å"African Institute of Corporate Citizenship â€Å"(AICC) (2002), the size of the South African SRI market in 2001 was already 1.55% of the total investment market. In an another major development, in May 2004, the Johannesburg Securities Exchange had launched its own tradable SRI Index, the first of its kind in an emerging market (Sonnenberg et al., 2004). A similar index was also introduced in Brazil. Closely linked to the literature on SRI in developing countries is the debate about the business case for CSR. Very few instrumental studies have been done, a survey done in Thailand by Connelly and Limpaphayom (2004) had showed that environmental reporting had not negatively impacted on short-term profitability and has in fact generated a positive relationship with firm valuation. More generally, a report by Sustainability (2002) uses case studies to illustrate various business benefits associated with addressing sustainability in developing countries. Furthermore, Goyal (2006) contends that CSR may serve as a signaling device for developing countries seeking to assess foreign direct investment proposals by unknown foreign firms. 2.5.9 Stakeholders In general the governmental has not got strong control or prohibitive laws over the social, ethical, and environmental performance of companies in developing countries, hence in its absence activism by stake- holder groups has become major source of CSR. Lund-Thomsen (2004) had described describes this as â€Å"an outcome of micro-level struggles between companies and communities over the distribution of social and environmental hazards which are created when global political and economic forces interact with local contexts around the world†. In research it was found that there are mainly four kinds of groups namely development agencies (Jenkins, 2005), trade unions (Kaufman et al., 2004), international NGOs (Christian Aid, 2005), and business associations (WBCSD, 2000) has emerged as the most impotant activists for CSR. These four groups had also provided a support for local NGOs. Another goup has also emerged in recent times namely media, it has also emerged as a key support er for promoting CSR in developing countries (Vivarta and Canela, 2006). Activism by these groups in developing countries has taken various forms, which was classified by Newell (2001) â€Å"as civil regulation, litigation against companies, and international legal instruments†. Of these, civil regulation is perhaps the most common and effective. Bendell (2000) describes this as the theory that ‘businesses are being regulated by civil society, through the dual effect of negative impacts from conflict and benefits from collaboration [which] provides new means for people to hold companies accountable, thereby democratising the economy directly. There are numerous examples of civil regulation in action in the developing world of which South Africa is a rather striking case in point (Visser, 2005a). This has manifested itself mainly through community groups challenging companies over whether they are upholding the constitutional rights of citizens. Various land mark cases b etween 1994 and 2004 suggest that, although civil society still tends to lack capacity and resources in South Africa, this has been an effective strategy. Stakeholder activism has also taken a constructive approach towards encouraging CSR, through groups like the National Business Initiative and partnerships between business and NGOs. Stakeholder activism can also be a source of criticism of CSR, arguing that it is an inadequate response to the social and environmental challenges of developing countries. The Christian Aid (2005) report Behind the Mask: The Real Face of Corporate Social Responsibility epitomizes this critical approach, and may be a driver for an enlarged conception and practice of CSR in developing countries. 2.5.10 Supply Chain Management Another